Statement of Ethical Practice for Use of Research Findings
The purpose of research efforts of the Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Center and its research scientists and affiliates is three fold:
- To conduct multiple ongoing research projects on topics and issues important to the field of adventure and wilderness therapy.
- To increase accessibility to wilderness & adventure therapy research, and
- To inform the public and professionals outside of the field of OBH on the ongoing empircal base of wilderness and adventure therapy.
It is critical that any research and evaluation reported on this website and subsequent publications involve ONLY those programs mentioned in each study. In no way do the results reported in any study make claim to the effectiveness of these interventions beyond the scope of each study, the study program participants, and the findings reported herein.
Each journal article below has been vetted through the peer review process required for scholarly articles, and gone through the appropriate level of ethical review including Human Subjects Review through the authors' Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) at their universities. Click here for more information on the peer review process and Click here for more information on the IRB Process.
Notes
Notes
- Publications on this page are grouped together by topic starting with the most recently published manuscripts. To access the abstracts, please click on the links provided in each reference.
Overviews of Adventure Therapy & Experiential Practice
Alvarez, T. G., Stauffer, G., Lung, D. M, Sacksteder, K., Beale, B., & Tucker, A. R. (2021). Adventure group psychotherapy: An experiential approach to treatment. Routledge. (Textbook)
Gass, M. A., Gillis, H. L. (Lee), & Russell, K.C. (2020). Adventure therapy: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. (Textbook)
Norton, C. L., Carpenter, C. & Pryor, A. (2015). Adventure therapy around the globe: International perspectives and diverse approaches. Common Ground Publishing. (Book)
Bobilya, A. J., Holman, T. H., Lindley, B., Norton, C. L., Bell, B., Mitten, D., Ayers, E. & Smith, S. (2024). Trends and issues in experiential and outdoor education programs. Journal of Experiential Education. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538259241239586
Leonard, A. M., Ewert, A. E., Lieberman-Raridon, K., Mitten, D., Rabinowitz, E., Deringer, A., Schwartz, F. Smith, S., Norton, C. L., Regentin, J., & Bagley, S. (2021). Outdoor adventure and experiential education and COVID-19: What have we learned? Journal of Experiential Education, 45(3), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538259211050762
Dobud, W. W., & Harper, N. J. (2018). Of dodo birds and common factors: A scoping review of direct comparison trials in adventure. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 31, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2018.01.005
Russell, K. C., & Gillis, H. L. (2017). The Adventure Therapy Experience Scale: The psychometric properties of a scale to measure the unique factors moderating an adventure therapy experience. Journal of Experiential Education, 40(2), 135-152. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825917690541
Tucker, A. R., Norton, C., Itin, C., Hobson, J., & Alvarez, M. A. (2016). Adventure therapy: Non deliberative group therapy in action, Social Work with Groups, 39(2-3), 194-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609513.2015.1048416
Gillis, H. L., Gass, M. A., & Russell, K. C. (2014). Adventure therapy with groups. In J. DeLucia Waack, C. Kalodner, & M. Riva (Eds), The Handbook of Group Counseling and Psychotherapy (2nd Ed.) (pp. 560-570). Sage Publications.
Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R., Russell, K. C., Bettmann, J., Gass, M. A, Gillis, H. L., & Behrens, E. (2014). Adventure therapy with youth. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(1), 46 - 59. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825913518895
Norton, C. L. (2013). Creating group norms around the campfire: Adventure based group work with adolescents. In L. Grobman & J. Clements (Eds.), Riding the mutual aid bus and other adventures in group work: A Days in the Lives of Social Workers collection. The New Social Worker.
Russell, K. C. & Gillis, H. L. (2010). Experiential therapy in the mental health treatment of adolescents. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 4, 47-79.
Tucker, A. R. (2009). Adventure-based group therapy to promote social skills in adolescents. Social Work with Groups, 32(4), 315-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609510902874594
Scheinfeld, D. E., Rochlen, A. B., & Buser, S. J. (2011). Adventure therapy: A supplementary group therapy approach for men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(2), 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022041
Overviews of Wilderness Therapy/OBH
Priest, S. (2022). Clearing up the confusion over outdoor therapies: How they fit with, overlap and relate to one another. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education and Leadership, 14(3), 114-121. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2022-11552.
Tucker, A. R., Norton, C. L., DeMille, S., Talbot, B., & Keefe, M. (2022). Chapter 25: Wilderness programs. In J. Loeffler, & E. Frazier (Eds.) Handbook of evidence-based day treatment programs for children and adolescents (pp. 375-393). Springer.
Becker, S., & Russell, K. C. (2016). Wilderness therapy for adolescents. In, R. J. R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of adolescence (2nd ed.). Springer Books.
Norton, C. L. (2011). Wilderness therapy: Creating a context of hope. In C. L. Norton (Ed.), Innovative interventions in child and adolescent mental health (pp. 66-140). New York: Routledge.
Russell, K. C. (2001). What is wilderness therapy? Journal of Experiential Education, 24, 70- 79. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590102400203
Outcomes of Wilderness Therapy/OBH with Youth
*Bettmann, J. E., Martinez-Gutierrez, N., Esrig, R., Blumenthan, E., & Mills, L. (2023). Who declines and who improves in wilderness therapy. Child & Youth Care Forum. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-023-09781-6
Tucker, A. R., DeMille, S., Newman, T., Polachi Atanasova, C., Bryan, P., Keefe, M., & Smitherman, L. (2023). How adolescents view the role of the wilderness in wilderness therapy: “I am in the middle of nowhere and that is okay”. Children and Youth Services Review, 153, 107045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107045
DeMille, S., Tucker, A. R., Gass, M. A., Javorski, S., VanKanegan, C., Talbot, B., & Karoff, M. (2018). The effectiveness of Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare with struggling adolescents: A comparison group study. Child and Youth Service Review, 88, 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.015
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L. & Harvey, J. D. (2018). An evaluation of Alaska Crossings: Comparison of the client status review and the Youth Outcome Questionnaire. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10(1), 127-154.
Gabrielsen, L. E., & Harper, N. J. (2017). The role of wilderness therapy for adolescents in the face of global trends of urbanization and technification. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2017.1406379
Norton, C. L., & Peyton, J. (2017). Mindfulness-based practice in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 9(1), 7-20.
Bettmann, J. E., Gillis, H. L., Speelman, E. A., Parry, K. J., & Case, J. M. (2016). A Meta-analysis of Wilderness Therapy Outcomes for private pay clients. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(9), 2659-2673. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10826-016-0439-0
Combs, K. M. (2016). What does it take to get post-discharge data? Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8(1), 18-23.
Combs, K. M., Hoag, M., Javorski, S., & Roberts, S. (2016). Adolescent self-assessment of an Outdoor Behavioral Health program: longitudinal outcomes and trajectories of change. Journal of Child and Family Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0497-3
Gillis, H. L., Speelman, E., Linville, N., Bailey, E., Kalle, A., Oglesbee, N., ... & Jensen, J. (2016). Meta analysis of treatment outcomes measured by the Y-OQ and Y-OQ-SR comparing wilderness and non-wilderness treatment programs. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45(6), 851-863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9360-3
Hoag, M. J., Combs, K. M., & Roberts, S. D. (2016). Pushing beyond outcome: What else changes in wilderness therapy? Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8(1), 45-56.
Massey, K., Hoag, M., Roberts, S., & Javorski, S. (2016). A multilevel model to examine adolescent outcomes in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: The parent perspective. Child and Youth Care Forum, 45, 353- 365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9331-0
Bettmann, J. E., Clarkson Freeman, P., & Parry, K., (2015). Differences between adopted and non-adopted adolescents in wilderness and residential treatment. The Journal of Experiential Education, 38, 245-261. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825915569056.
DeMille, S. M. & Burdict, M. (2015). A theoretically anchored and multi-modal treatment approach in an Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare program. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 7, 19-30.
*Tucker, A. R., Smith, A., & Gass, M. A. (2014). The impact of presenting problems and individual client characteristics on treatment outcomes in residential and wilderness treatment programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 31(2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2014.918446
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. M., Roberts, S., (2014). Dissecting the wilderness therapy client: Examining clinical trends, findings, and industry patterns. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(4), 382-396. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825914540837
*Zelov, R., Tucker, A. R., & Javorksi, S. (2013). A new phase for the NATSAP PRN: Post-discharge reporting and transition to the network wide utilization of the Y-OQ 2.0. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 6(1), 7-19.
*Magle-Haberek, N., Tucker, A. R., & Gass, M. A. (2012). The effects of program differences within wilderness therapy and residential treatment center (RTC) programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 29(3), 202-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2012.697433
Bettmann, J. E., Lundahl, B. W., Wright, R. A., Jasperson, R. A., & McRoberts, C. (2011). Who are they? A descriptive study of adolescents in wilderness and residential programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 28 (3), 198-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2011.596735.
Norton, C. L. (2010). Into the wilderness—A case study: The psychodynamics of adolescent depression and the need for a holistic intervention. Clinical Social Work Journal, 38(2), 226-235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-009-0205-5
Norton, C. L. (2010). Exploring the process of a therapeutic wilderness experience: Key therapeutic components in the treatment of adolescent depression and psychosocial development. Journal of Therapeutic School and Program, 4(1), 24-46.
Norton, C. L. (2008). Understanding the impact of wilderness therapy on adolescent depression and psychosocial development. Illinois Child Welfare, 4(1), 166-178. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstream/handle/1811/36779/2/21_4norton_paper.pdf
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., & Lewis, T. G. (2008). A five-year follow-up of a nationwide survey of outdoor behavioral healthcare programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 55-77. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100106
Russell, K. C. (2006). Brat camps, boot camps, or….? Exploring wilderness therapy program theory. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 6, 51-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670685200741
Russell, K. C. (2005). Two years later: A qualitative assessment of youth-well-being and the role of aftercare in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment. Child and Youth Care Forum, 34, 209-239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-005-3470-7
Russell, K. C. & Sibthorp, J. (2004). Hierarchical linear modeling of treatment outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 176-191. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590402700205
Russell, K. C. & Farnum, J. (2004). A concurrent model of the wilderness therapy process. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 4, 39-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670485200411
Russell, K. C. (2003). Assessing treatment outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare using the Youth Outcome Questionnaire. Child and Youth Care Forum. 32, 355-381. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCAR.0000004507.12946.7e
Russell, K. C. (2003). A nation-wide survey of outdoor behavioral healthcare programs for adolescents with problem behaviors. Journal of Experiential Education, 25, 322-331. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590302500306
Russell, K. C. (2002). Does outdoor behavioral healthcare work? A review of studies on the effectiveness of OBH as an intervention and treatment. Journal of Therapeutic Camping, Summer/Fall, 2, 5-12. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ654464
Russell, K. C., & Phillips-Miller, D. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness therapy process and its relation to outcome. Child and Youth Care Forum, 31, 415- 437. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021110417119
Russell, K. C. (2000). Exploring how the wilderness therapy process relates to outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 23, 170-176. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590002300309
Outcomes of Wilderness Therapy/OBH with Young Adults
*Curtis, A., Briggs, J., & Behrens, E. (2018). Young adults in residential treatment and outdoor behavioral health programs: Preliminary outcomes from the Practice Research Network of the National Association of Therapeutic Schools and Programs. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 65-91.
Bettmann, J. E., Tucker, A. R., Behrens, E., & Vanderloo, M. (2017). Changes in older adolescents and young adults’ attachment, separation, and mental health during wilderness therapy. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(2), 511-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0577-4
Roberts, S., Stroud, D., Hoag, M. J., & Massey, K. (2017). Outdoor behavioral healthcare: A longitudinal assessment of young adult outcomes. Journal of Counseling and Development, 95, 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12116
Gillis, H. L., Kivlighan, D. M., & Russell, K. C. (2016). Between-client and within-client engagement and outcome in a residential wilderness treatment group: An actor partner interdependence analysis. Psychotherapy, 53(4), 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000047
Roberts, S., Stroud, D., Hoag, M. J., & Combs, K. M. (2016). Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Client and treatment characteristics effects on young adult outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 39(3), 288-302. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825916655445
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. M., Roberts, S., (2014). Dissecting the wilderness therapy client: Examining clinical trends, findings, and industry patterns. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(4), 382-396. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825914540837
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. E., Roberts, S. D., & Logan, P. (2013). Efficacy of wilderness therapy for young adults: A first look. Journal of Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 30, 294-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2013.852452
Substance Use Disorders and Wilderness Therapy/OBH
Bettmann, J. E., Kouris, G. M., Anderson, I. M., & Cassleman, B. (2021). Wilderness as healing environment: Treating adolescent substance misuse in wilderness therapy. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 74(1), 249-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.2020.1859270
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., & Hayes, M. (2020). Adventure therapy treatment for young adult males struggling with addictions. Journal of Health Service Psychology, 46(1), 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-020-00003-4
Mandas, P., Argo, K., Rose, H., Zelenik, T., Wetherington, A., Cook, G., Brogden, M. C., Gillis, H. L., & Russell, K. C. (2019). Differences between opioid and non-opioid users during and after outdoor behavioral treatment. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 11, 105-119.
*Gass, M. A., Wilson, T., Talbot, B., Tucker, A. R., Ugianskis, M. & Brennan, N. (2019). The value of outdoor behavioral healthcare for adolescent substance users with comorbid conditions. Journal of Substance Abuse: Treatment and Research, 13, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178221819870768
Lewis, S. (2018). A novel investigation of substance use outcomes in substance-specific Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programs. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 106-126.
Chapman, J., Groark, S., Beale, M.M., Mandas, P., Argos, K., & Gillis, H. L. (2018). The relationship between self-reported prior drug use and treatment effectiveness in substance use disorder during outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment for young adult males. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 92-105.
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., Law, L., & Couillard, J. (2018). A pilot study examining outcomes associated with the implementation of progress monitoring at a substance use disorder treatment program for adolescents. Child and Youth Care Forum, 47(3), 403-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-018-9437-2
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., & Heppner, W. (2016). An examination of mindfulness-based experiences through adventure in substance use disorder treatment for young adult males: A Pilot Study. Mindfulness, 7, 320-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0441-4
Lewis, S. F. (2013). Examining changes in substance use and conduct problems among treatment‐seeking adolescents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18(1), 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2012.00657.x
Bettmann, J. E., Russell, K. C., & Parry, K. J. (2012). How substance abuse recovery skills, readiness to change and symptom reduction impact change processes in wilderness therapy participants. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(8), 1039-1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9665-2.
Russell, K. C. (2008). Adolescent substance-use treatment: Service delivery, research on effectiveness, and emerging treatment alternatives. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 2(2-4), 68-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15560350802081264
Russell, K. C. (2005). Preliminary results of a study examining the effects of outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment on levels of depression and substance use frequency. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 305-307. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590502700311
Wilderness Therapy/OBH’s Impact on Physical Health
Tucker, A. R., Norton, C. L., DeMille, S., & Hobson, J. (2016). The impact of wilderness therapy on physical and emotional health: Utilizing an integrated approach in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare. Journal of Experiential Education, 39 (1), 15-30. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825915607536
DeMille, S., Comart, C., & Tucker, A. R. (2014). Body composition changes in an Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare program. Ecopsychology, 6(3), 174-182. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2014.0012
White, D. D., Caulkins, M., & Russell, K. C. (2006). The role of physical exercise in wilderness therapy for troubled adolescent women. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 18-37. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590602900104
Attachment and Wilderness Therapy/OBH
Bettmann, J. E, Olson-Morrison, D., & Jasperson, R. A. (2011). Adolescents in wilderness treatment: A qualitative study of attachment relationships. Journal of Experiential Education, 34 (2), 176-194. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382591103400206
Bettmann, J. E., & Tucker, A. R. (2011). Shifts in attachment relationships: A study of adolescents in wilderness treatment. Child and Youth Care Forum, 40(6), 499-519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-011-9146-6
Bettmann, J. E, Demong, E., & Jasperson, R. A. (2008). Treating adolescents with attachment and adoption issues in wilderness therapy settings. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 3(1), 117-138.
Bettmann, J. E., & Jasperson, R. A. (2008). Adults in wilderness treatment: A unique application of attachment theory and research. Clinical Social Work Journal, 36 (1), 51-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-007-0134-0
Bettmann, J. E. (2007). Changes in adolescent attachment relationships as a response to wilderness treatment. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 55 (1), 259-265. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00030651070550010103
Adventure and Wilderness Therapy with Families
Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R, Farnham-Stratton, M., Borroel, F., & Pelletier, A. (2019). Family enrichment adventure therapy: A mixed methods study examining the impact of trauma-informed adventure therapy on children and families affected by abuse. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 12(1), 85-95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0133-4
Christian, D. D., Perryman, K. L., & Portrie-Bethke, T. L. (2017). Improving the parent–adolescent relationship with adventure-based counseling: An Adlerian perspective. Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 3(1), 44–58. https://doi-org.unh.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/23727810.2017.1281693
DeMille, S. M., & Montgomery, M. (2016). Integrating narrative family therapy in an Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare program: A case study. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9362-6
Liermann, K., & Norton, C. L. (2016). Positive relationship outcomes between parents and adolescent children following therapeutic wilderness program for struggling teens. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38, 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9371-5
Liermann, K., & Norton, C. L. (2016). Enhancing family communication: Examining the impact of a therapeutic wilderness program for struggling teens and parents. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38(1), 14-22. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10591-015-9371-5
*Tucker, A. R., Paul, M., Hobson. J., Karoff, M., & Gass, M. (2016). Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Its impact on family functioning. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8, 21-40.
Tucker, A. R., Widmer, M., Faddis, T., Randolph, B., & Gass, M. (2016). Family therapy in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Current practices and future possibilities. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38, 32-42. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10591-015-9370-6
Harper, N., & Russell, K. C. (2008). Family involvement and outcome in adolescent wilderness treatment: A mixed-method evaluation. International Journal of Child and Family Welfare, 1, 19-36. https://www.obhcouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/family-involvement.pdf
Harper, N., Russell, K. C., Cooley, R., & Cupples, J. (2007). Catherine Freer Wilderness Therapy Expeditions: An exploratory case study of adolescent wilderness therapy, family functioning, and the maintenance of change. Child and Youth Care Forum, 36, 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-007-9035-1
Faddis, T. J., & Bettmann, J. E. (2006). Reflecting team and other innovative family therapy techniques, adapted for outdoor behavioral mental health settings. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 1(1), 57-69.
Harper, N., Russell, K. C., & Cooley, R. (2006). An exploratory examination of changes in adolescent and family well-being following a wilderness therapy intervention. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 393-396. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590702900314
Adventure/Wilderness Therapy in Juvenile Justice
Norton, C. L., & Holguin, B. (2012). Restoration not incarceration: An environmentally based pilot initiative for working with young offenders. In M. Gray, J. Coates, & T. Hetherington (Eds.), Environmental social work (pp. 172-192). Routledge.
Norton, C. L., & Holguin, B. (2011). Promoting ecological health: An exploratory study of an environmentally based program for formerly incarcerated young adults. Ecopsychology, 3(3), 205-212. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2011.0040
Walsh, M., & Russell. K. C. (2011). An exploratory study of a wilderness adventure program for young offenders. Ecopsychology, 2, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2010.0035
Gillis, H. L., & Gass, M. A. (2010). Treating juveniles in a sex offender program using adventure-based programming: A matched group design. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 19(1), 20-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538710903485583
Gillis, H. L., Gass, M. A., & Russell, K. C. (2008). The effectiveness of Project Adventure’s behavior management program for male offenders in residential treatment. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 25, 227-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/08865710802429689
Russell, K. C. (2006). Evaluating the effects of the Wendigo Lake Expedition program for young offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence, 4, 185-203. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1541204006286317
Risk Management
Norton, C. L. (2021). Excerpt: Trauma-informed risk management in Chapter 8 Inclusive risk management practices. In S. Smith (Ed.), Beneficial risks: The evolution of risk management for outdoor and experiential education programs: Theories, research, and lessons learned through experience (pp. 65-80). Sagamore-Venture.
Gass, M. A., & Javorski, S. (2013). 10-year incident monitoring trends in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Lessons learned and future directions. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 6, 113-129.
Russell, K. C. & Harper, N. (2006). Incident monitoring in outdoor behavioral healthcare programs: A four-year summary of restraint, runaway, injury, and illness rates. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 1(1), 70-90.
Transport in Wilderness Therapy/OBH
Gass, M. A., Hardy, C., Norton, C.L., & Keefe, M. (2022). Involuntary Youth Transportation (IYT) to treatment programs: Best practices, research, ethics, and future applications. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 39, 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-021-00801-9
Tucker, A. R., Combs, K. M., Bettman, J., Chang, T., Graham, S., Hoag, M., & Tatum, C. (2018). Longitudinal outcomes for youth transported to wilderness therapy programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(4), 438-451. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731516647486 .
Tucker, A. R., Bettmann, J., Norton, C. L., & Comart, C. (2015). The role of transport use in Adolescent wilderness treatment: Its relationship to readiness to change and outcome. Child and Youth Care Forum, 44, 671-686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9301-6
Community-Based Adventure Therapy
Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R., Riley, M. J., & Rupe, B. (2023). Positive youth development and adventure therapy with underserved youth: An evaluation of the Chicago Voyagers program. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education & Leadership. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2023-11703
VanKanegan, C., Tucker, A. R., McMillion, P., & Gass, M. (2019). Adventure therapy and its impact on the functioning of youth in a community setting. Social Work with Groups, 42(2), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609513.2018.1478761
Christian, D. D., Brown, C. L., & Portrie-Bethke, T. L. (2019). Group climate and development in adventure therapy: An exploratory study. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 44(1), 25–45.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2018.1561776
Karoff, M., Tucker, A. R., Alvarez, M. A., & Kovacs, P. (2017). Infusing a peer-to-peer support program with adventure therapy for adolescent students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal for Experiential Education, 40(4), 394-408. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825917727551
Dobud, W. W. (2016). Exploring adventure therapy as an early intervention for struggling adolescents. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 19(1), 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400985
Koperski, H., Tucker, A. R., Lung, D. M., & Gass, M. (2015). The impact of community-based adventure therapy programming on stress and coping skills in adults. Practitioner Scholar: Journal of Counseling and Professional Psychology, 4(1), 1-16. https://scholars.unh.edu/socwork_facpub/53/
Norton, C. L., Wisner, B., Krugh, M., Penn, A. (2014). Helping youth transition into an alternative residential school setting: Exploring the effects of a wilderness orientation program on youth purpose and identity complexity. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 31(5), 475-493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-014-0331-y
Norton, C. L., Watt, T., & Penn, A. (2014). Exploring the impact of a wilderness-based positive youth development program for urban youth. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(4), 335-350. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913503113
Scheinfeld, D. E., & Buser S. J. (2013). Adventure therapy for men’s groups. In A. Rochlen & F. Rabinowitz (Eds.), Breaking barriers in counseling men: Insights and innovations. Routledge Press.
Tucker, A. R., Javorski, S., Tracy, J., & Beale, B. (2013). The use of adventure therapy in community-based mental health: Decreases in problem severity among youth clients. Child and Youth Care Forum, 42(2), 155-179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-012-9190-x
Training, Staffing & Supervision
Jeffrey, H., Smith, A., Richards, K., Borroel, F., Norton, C. L., Pryor, A., Knowles, B., Rose, A., & Ginwala, T. (2023). ‘Cooking up a good practitioner’: What are the necessary ingredients of International Adventure Therapy training and development? International Journal of Adventure Therapy.
Priest. S. (2023). Six elements of adventure therapy: A step toward building the “black box” process of adventure. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 15(1), 13-33.
Priest, S., & Gillis, H. L. (2023). The tri-competent adventure therapist compared with the certified clinical adventure therapist. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs 15(1), 105-118.
Myrick, L., Wermer-Colan, A., Norton, C. L., & Tucker, A. R. (2021). Understanding trauma-related distress among wilderness therapy field staff. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 13, 69-101.
Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R., & Bandoroff, S. (2020). Psychological risk management: Mental health prevention and response strategies in outdoor settings. In N. Harper & W. Dobud (Eds.), Outdoor Therapies (pp. 42-53). Routledge Press.
Norton, C. L., Schultz, M., Benton, A., Boden-McGill, C. & Kiosoglous, C. (2019). Outdoor adventure-based group work to promote coping and resilience among child welfare workers. In T. J. Carter, C. J. Boden-McGill, & K. Peno, (Eds). Transformative learning in professional learning contexts: Building resilient professional identities for work-based practice (pp. 197-220). Information Age Publishing.
Tucker, A., & Norton, C.L. (2018). Facilitation resource manual for effective leadership. In B. Bell, M. Gass & S. Priest (Eds.), Effective leadership in adventure programming instructor guide (3rd Ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Christian, D. D., & Perryman, K. L. (2018). Adventures in supervision: Implications for supervision of adventure based counseling. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 13(1), 19–30.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2017.1345670
Tucker, A. R., & Norton, C. L. (2013). The use of adventure therapy techniques by clinical social workers: Implications for practice and training. Clinical Social Work Journal, 41, 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-012-0411-4
Norton, C. L. (2012). Supervision in adventure therapy: Building something with that. In M. Gass, H. L. Gillis, & K. C. Russell (Eds.), Adventure therapy. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203136768
Marchand, G. & Russell, K. C. (2011). Initial training of field instructors in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programs. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 3, 9-12. https://doi.org/10.7768/1948-5123.1106
Gass, M. A. & Gillis, H. L. (2010). ENHANCES: Adventure therapy supervision. Journal of Experiential Education, 33(1), 72-89. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382591003300106
Norton, C. L., & Tucker, A. R. (2010). New heights: Adventure-based group work in social work education & practice. Groupwork, 20(2), 24-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1921/gpwk.v20i2.701
Tucker, A. R., & Rheingold, A. (2010). Enhancing fidelity in adventure education and adventure therapy. Journal of Experiential Education, 33(3), 258-273. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590113300305
Marchand, G. Russell, K. C. & Cross, R. (2009). An empirical examination of outdoor behavioral healthcare field instructor job-related stress and retention. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 359-375. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100304
Veterans and the Outdoors
Leonard, A., Bettmann, J. E., & Blumenthal. E. (2024). Barriers for veterans accessing outdoor programming: An examination of website representation. Journal of Experiential Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538259231225196
Bettmann, J. E., Leonard, A., & Blumenthal, E. (2023). Barriers to access and website representation of racially-diverse veterans accessing veteran outdoor programs. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, LVII(4), 309-320. https://doi.org/10.18666/TRJ-2023-V57-I4-11955
Bettmann, J. E, Anderson, I., Makouske, J., & Hanley, A. W. (2022). Mental health outcome of peer-led therapeutic adventure for military veterans. Journal of Experiential Education, 45(3), 295-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538259211049535
Hermann, T. S., Bettmann, J. E., Sweeney, C., Marchand, W.R., Carlson, J., & Hanley, A.W.(2022). Military veterans’ motivations and barriers to outdoor recreation participation. Journal of Leisure Studies, 42(4), 581-598. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2022.2125556
Bettmann, J. E., Prince, K. C., Ganesh, K., Rugo, K. F., Bryan. A.O., Bryan, C. J., Rozek, D. C., & Leifker, F. R. (2021). The effect of time outdoors on veterans receiving treatment for PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(9), 2041-2056. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23139
Leonard, A., Hoellger, L., Bettmann, J. E., Kouris, G., & Ganesh, K. (2021). Sierra Club Military Outdoors: A nature-based intervention for female veterans. In D.L. Dustin, K.S. Bricker, D.A. Tysor, & M.T.J. Brownlee (Eds.), Outdoor Recreation and Our Military Family: Pathways to Recovery. Sagamore Venture.
Bettmann, J. E., Anstadt, G., & Kolaski, A. Z. (2020). Therapeutic adventure for military veterans with mental illness: A conceptual argument. Ecopsychology, 12(4), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2019.0045
Bettmann, J. E., Scheinfeld, D., Prince, K., Garland, E. L, & Ovrom, K. V. (2018). Changes in psychiatric symptoms and psychological processes among veterans participating in a therapeutic adventure program. Psychological Services, 16(4), 525-534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ser0000213
Scheinfeld, D. E., Rochlen, A. B., & Russell, M. L. (2017). The impact of Outward Bound programming on psychosocial functioning for male military veterans. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18(4), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000066
Other Special Populations
Lown, E. A., Otto, H. R., Norton, C. L., Jong, M. C., & Jong, M. (2023). Program evaluation of a wilderness experience for adolescents facing cancer: A time in nature to heal, connect and find strength. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291856
Denny, S., Norton, C. L, & Tucker, A. R. (2023). Promoting resilience in college students through group-based adventure therapy. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs 15(1), 1-29.
Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R., Pelletier, A., VanKanegan, C., & Boggs, K. (2020). Utilizing adventure therapy to increase hope and well-being among shelter residents. the Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership (Special Issue: A Critical Exploration of Girls’ and Women’s Experiences in Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership), 12(1), 87-101. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2020-V12-I1-9928
Tucker, A. R., Sugerman, D., & Zelov, R. (2013). On Belay: Providing connection, support and empowerment to children whose parents have cancer. Journal of Experiential Education, 36(2) 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913487889
Role of Nature
Slattery, M., Ramsay, S., Pryor, A., Gallagher, H., Norton, C. L., Nikkel, L., Smith, A., McAuliffe, D. (2022). Nature-based interventions in social work practice and education: Insights from six countries. International Social Work, 66(6), 1686-1700. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208728221123160
Sanyer, M., Bettmann, J. E., Anstadt, G., Ganesh, K. A., & Hanley, A. W. (2022). Decenter to re-enter nature: Relationships between nature connectedness, self-transcendence, and decentering. Psychology of consciousness: Theory, research, and practice, 10(3), 205-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000307
Hanley, A. W., Derringer, A., Sneed, J.C., Bettmann, J. E, & Gonzalez-Pons, K. M. (2021). The State of Interdependence with Nature Scale: Development and initial validation. Ecopsychology, 14(1), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2021.0014
Harper, N. J., Fernee, C. R., & Gabrielsen, L. E. (2021). Nature’s role in outdoor therapies: an umbrella review. International journal of environmental research andpublic health, 18(10), 5117. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/10/5117
Hanley, A. W., Bettmann, J. E., Kendrick, C. E., Derringer, A., & Norton, C. L. (2020). Dispositional mindfulness is associated with nature connectedness and self reported ecological behavior. Ecopsychology, 12(1), 54-63. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2019.0017
Norton, C.L. (2011). Social work and the environment: An ecosocial approach. International Journal of Social Welfare. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00853.x
Norton, C.L. (2009). Ecopsychology and social work: Creating an interdisciplinary framework for redefining person-in-environment. Ecopsychology, 1(3), 138-145.
Gender and Cultural Considerations
Norton, C.L. (2022). The never-ending quest for safety and belonging. In R. Yerkes, D. Mitten, & K. Warren (Eds.), Diversity, equity, inclusion, & belonging field guide: Stories of lived experience (pp. 96-101). Association for Experiential Education.
Gray, S., Norton, C.L., & Yerkes, R. (2022). Introduction. In R. Yerkes, D. Mitten, & K. Warren (Eds.), Diversity, equity, inclusion, & belonging field guide: Stories of lived experience (pp. 2–8). Association for Experiential Education.
Tucker, A. R., Norton, C. L., Stifler, J., Gass, M., & Bostick, K. (2020). Best practices for working with transgender clients in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 7, 53- 69. https://doi.org/10.19157/JTSP.issue.12.01.04
Karoff, M., Norton, C. L., Tucker, A. R., Gass, M., & Foerster, E. (2019). A qualitative gender analysis of women field guides’ experiences in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: A feminist social work perspective. Affilia: Journal of Women in Social Work, 34(1), 48-64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109918790932
Avery, M. E., Norton, C. L., & Tucker, A. R. (2018). Blazing a trail…together: The need for mentoring and collaboration among women in outdoor leadership. In T. Gray & D. Mitten (Ed.), The Palgrave Macmillan International Handbook of Women and Outdoor Learning (pp. 801-813). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53550-0_55
Gray, T., Norton, C. L., Breault-Hood, J., Christie, B., & Taylor, N. (2018) Curating a public self: Exploring social media images of women in the outdoors. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership (JOREL) 10(2), 153-170. https://js.sagamorepub.com/jorel/article/view/8191/0
Harper, N. J., Gabrielsen, L. E., & Carpenter, C. (2018). A cross-cultural exploration of ‘wild’ in wilderness therapy: Canada, Norway and Australia. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 18(2), 148-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2017.1384743
Chang, T., Tucker, A. R., Javorski, S., Gass, M., & Norton, C. L. (2016). Cultural issues in adventure programming: Applying Hofstede’s five dimensions to assessment and practice. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning. 17(4), 307-320. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2016.1259116
Norton, C. L. (2015). Building bridges: Using adventure to enhance the therapeutic relationship cross-culturally. In C.L. Norton, C. Carpenter, & A. Pryor (Eds.), Adventure therapy around the globe: International perspectives and diverse approaches (pp. 326-340). Common Ground Publishing.
Norton, C. L. (2015). Provoking. In C.L. Norton, C. Carpenter, & A. Pryor (Eds.), Adventure therapy around the globe: International perspectives and diverse approaches (pp. 16-42). Common Ground Publishing.
Bettmann, J. E., Tucker, A. R., Tracy, J., & Parry, K. (2014). An exploration of gender, client history and functioning in wilderness therapy participants. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 31(3), 155-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2014.943554
Norton, C. L. & Hsieh, C. (2011). Cultural bridging through shared adventure: Cross cultural perspectives in adventure therapy. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 11(2), 173-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2011.633390
Meta-Analyses
Bettmann, J. E., Gillis, H. L., Speelman, E. A., Parry, K. J., & Case, J. M. (2016). A Meta-analysis of Wilderness Therapy Outcomes for private pay clients. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(9), 2659-2673. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10826-016-0439-0
Gillis Jr, H. L., Speelman, E., Linville, N., Bailey, E., Kalle, A., Oglesbee, N., ... & Jensen, J. (2016). Meta analysis of treatment outcomes measured by the Y-OQ and Y-OQ-SR comparing wilderness and non-wilderness treatment programs. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45(6), 851-863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9360-3
Bowen, D., & Neill, J. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. The Open Psychology Journal, 6, 28- 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350120130802001
Gillis, H. L. & Speelman. E. (2008). Are Challenge (Ropes) Courses an Effective Tool? A Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Experiential Education, 31(2), 111-135. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100202
* These publications involved the use of the aggregate data set from the National Association of Therapeutic Schools and Program’s Practice Research Network and fell under the Internal Review Board at the University of New Hampshire. Other OBH/Wilderness research was focused on individual OBH program outcomes and evaluations which required separate Internal Review Board processes.
For additional information on research specific questions for researchers or the OBH Center, see contact page.